Nigeria entered independence on October 1, 1960 with enormous expectations.

It was one of Africa’s most important new countries, with a large population, considerable agricultural resources, a growing educated class and a political system that had gradually developed under British colonial rule.

The expectation was that Nigerians would now govern themselves and build a prosperous democratic country.

But independence did not erase the problems inherited from colonial rule, nor did it eliminate the political disagreements that had already developed among the country’s regions.

Instead, those tensions became more visible.

The First Republic would last only six years.

What followed was a period of coups, counter coups, civil war and military governments that would fundamentally change the Nigerian state.

President Nnamdi Azikiwe swearing in Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa as Prime Minister, 1964.

The First Republic

At independence, Nigeria operated a parliamentary system.

Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa served as Prime Minister, while Nnamdi Azikiwe was Governor General and became President when Nigeria became a republic in 1963.

The country’s three largest regions were politically dominated by different parties.

The Northern Peoples Congress was dominant in the Northern Region, the Action Group was influential in the Western Region, while the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons had strong support in the Eastern Region.

The regional structure was not automatically a problem. Federal systems can accommodate diversity.

The difficulty was that political competition increasingly became intertwined with regional and ethnic interests.

Political disputes became more intense.

The Western Region experienced a major political crisis in 1962 and 1963. There were disputes over party leadership and the regional government, followed by a state of emergency.

The 1962 and 1963 census also became politically explosive because population figures affected representation and resource allocation.

The 1964 federal election was deeply disputed.

The 1965 Western Region election produced another major crisis.

Violence spread.

Political institutions were losing public confidence.

October 1, 1960: Inside Nigeria's First Independence Day | Pulse Nigeria

Then came January 15, 1966.

The First Coup

A group of young military officers staged a coup.

Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa was killed. Other senior political figures were also assassinated.

Major General Johnson Aguiyi Ironsi, the most senior army officer, assumed power. Contemporary diplomatic records confirm that the military took over following the January 1966 coup and that Ironsi became head of the military government.

The coup immediately created deep suspicion.

Although the officers involved came from different backgrounds, the fact that several prominent northern and western political figures had been killed while some eastern leaders survived contributed to perceptions that the coup had ethnic and regional dimensions.

Ironsi attempted to restore order and strengthen the federal government.

He introduced a unification policy that many interpreted as an attempt to replace the federal structure with a more centralised system.

Nigeria's First Coup: The midnight massacre that altered the nation's history | Pulse Nigeria

This generated further resentment, especially in the north.

Then, in July 1966, another coup occurred.

Ironsi was killed.

Yakubu Gowon emerged as Head of State.

The country was now under military rule.

The Road to Civil War

The crisis did not end with Gowon’s emergence.

There were widespread killings of Igbo people and other eastern Nigerians in parts of the north. Large numbers of people fled southwards.

Negotiations were attempted.

The Aburi meeting in Ghana in 1967 sought a political settlement between Gowon and Eastern Region leader Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu.

The agreement did not produce a lasting settlement.

In May 1967, Gowon reorganised Nigeria from four regions into twelve states. Contemporary historical records indicate that the restructuring was intended in part to reduce the political dominance of the large regions and give greater political space to minority groups.

Aburi Agreement: How Ojukwu Outsmarted Gowon in January 1967 – HistoryVille

But the Eastern Region rejected the federal government’s authority.

On May 30, 1967, Ojukwu declared the independence of the Republic of Biafra.

Civil war began

The Nigerian Civil War

The Nigerian Civil War lasted from 1967 to 1970.

It was one of the most devastating events in the country’s history.

Millions of people were affected. Large numbers died from fighting, hunger and disease.

The federal government eventually defeated Biafra, and Ojukwu went into exile.

On January 15, 1970, Biafra surrendered.

Gowon’s government adopted the language of “no victor, no vanquished” and promoted reconstruction, rehabilitation and reconciliation.

The war left a deep psychological and political mark on Nigeria.

It reinforced the fear of national disintegration.

It also strengthened the federal government’s control over the country.

The creation of more states continued in the years that followed, partly to manage the country’s enormous diversity and reduce the dominance of the largest ethnic groups and regions.

HISTORY OF NIGERIAN CIVIL WAR WITH BIAFRA, THE CAUSE AND HOW IT ENDED - OLALEKAN ODUNTAN

The Oil Years

While the civil war was reshaping the country, another force was changing Nigeria’s economy.

Oil.

Petroleum had been discovered commercially in Oloibiri in the Niger Delta in 1956. Production expanded significantly after independence.

By the 1970s, oil had become the dominant source of government revenue and foreign exchange.

This transformed Nigeria.

The country suddenly had much greater financial resources.

The oil boom funded roads, universities, public buildings, industries and other infrastructure.

But it also created a problem that Nigeria continues to wrestle with.

A country that had previously depended heavily on agriculture became increasingly dependent on petroleum.

Oil wealth created opportunities, but it also encouraged centralisation of resources and intensified competition over control of the state.

Nigeria's Oil Boom of the 1970s, Transformation, Opportunities, and Lasting Consequences The oil boom of the 1970s stands as one of the most defining periods in Nigeria's economic and political history. Coming

Gowon and the Fall of the Military Government

Gowon remained in power until 1975.

His administration had overseen the civil war, post war reconstruction and major economic expansion.

But political dissatisfaction increased.

In July 1975, Gowon was overthrown while attending a summit in Uganda.

Brigadier Murtala Mohammed became Head of State.

His government lasted only about six months before he was assassinated during an attempted coup in February 1976.

Murtala would have transformed Nigeria if he hadn't been killed – Ibrahim, brother - Punch Newspapers

Lieutenant General Olusegun Obasanjo succeeded him.

Obasanjo continued the transition programme and returned Nigeria to civilian rule in 1979.

One of the major institutional changes was the movement from the parliamentary system inherited at independence to an American style presidential system.

Nigeria’s 1979 Constitution introduced the presidential system, creating a clearer separation among the executive, legislature and judiciary. (The Library of Congress)

The Second Republic

On October 1, 1979, the military handed power to an elected civilian government headed by President Shehu Shagari.

Nigeria had returned to democracy.

There was enormous optimism.

Throwback history: Outgoing head-of-state, General Olusegun Obasanjo having a little chat with the then president-elect, Shehu Shagari in September, 1979. What is your opinion on Nigeria's democracy so far over the years?

Oil prices were high and government revenues had increased. The country appeared to have the financial resources to transform itself.

But the oil boom did not last.

Oil prices declined, government finances became more difficult and economic problems increased.

The Second Republic was also affected by political disputes, allegations of corruption, electoral controversies and economic mismanagement.

The optimism that accompanied the return to civilian rule began to fade.

The Second Republic had lasted only four years.

Buhari and the Return of Military Discipline

The Buhari administration presented itself as a government determined to restore discipline.

It introduced the War Against Indiscipline and adopted a strict approach toward public conduct.

The government also took a tough position on corruption.

But military government meant political restrictions. Democratic institutions were suspended, and political freedoms were curtailed.

FROM THE ARCHIVE: Buhari's First Speech As Nigeria's Military Head of State In December 1983 | Premium Times Nigeria

Buhari himself would not remain in power for long.

In August 1985, Ibrahim Babangida overthrew him.

The Babangida Years

Babangida’s government became one of the longest and most consequential military administrations in Nigerian history.

He introduced political and economic reforms, including the Structural Adjustment Programme.

The programme was intended to address economic difficulties and reduce dependence on government controls, but it also brought hardship for many Nigerians through inflation, unemployment and reductions in some government interventions.

Babangida also began a transition programme toward civilian rule.

Political parties were created under military supervision.

But the process became increasingly controversial.

On 30 August 1985, following the overthrow of the Buhari military government, Major General Ibrahim Babangida presided over the swearing in of the new Armed Forces Ruling Council, formally inaugurating a new

The most important moment came on June 12, 1993.

A presidential election was held and widely regarded as a significant electoral moment. Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola emerged as the leading candidate according to widely reported results, but the military government annulled the election.

The annulment triggered widespread protests and political crisis.

Babangida eventually stepped aside.

Ernest Shonekan headed an Interim National Government, but that arrangement lasted only a short time.

Interesting flashback 👇 The 1993 Nigerian presidential election was held, and Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola, popularly known as MKO Abiola, won the election under the Social Democratic Party (SDP). He defeated his

In November 1993, General Sani Abacha took power.

The Abacha Years

Abacha’s government became one of the most controversial periods of military rule.

Political opposition was suppressed. Activists, journalists and political opponents faced detention and persecution.

The execution of environmental activist Ken Saro Wiwa and eight other Ogoni activists in 1995 attracted international condemnation.

Nigeria also faced international isolation.

Yet the Abacha years were not only about political repression. The government also continued infrastructure development and accumulated significant foreign reserves, but allegations of massive corruption and the diversion of public resources became a defining part of the period.

Ken Saro-Wiwa and the Ogoni Eight: Unforgettable Injustice, By Owens Wiwa - Premium Times Opinion

Abacha died suddenly in June 1998.

General Abdulsalami Abubakar became Head of State.

Unlike his predecessor, Abubakar moved rapidly toward civilian transition.

A new constitution was developed.

Political parties were registered.

Elections were held.

And in 1999, Nigeria returned to civilian government.

The End of Military Rule

Olusegun Obasanjo, the former military ruler who had handed power to civilians in 1979, returned to power in 1999, this time as an elected civilian president.

His election marked the beginning of what is now called the Fourth Republic.

The return was historic.

Nigeria had experienced repeated cycles of civilian government followed by military intervention since independence.

The transition of 1999 ended the country’s longest continuous period of military rule and began the longest uninterrupted period of civilian government since independence.

MAY 29, 1999: NIGERIA RETURNS TO DEMOCRACY Nigeria had been under military rule for several years and citizens were eager for a return to democratic rule and on May 29, 1999, Olusegun

But the end of military rule did not mean the end of Nigeria’s problems.

The country still faced poverty, corruption, ethnic and religious tensions, insecurity, weak institutions, inadequate infrastructure and an economy heavily dependent on oil.

The new democratic era therefore inherited a complicated country.

Nigeria had survived colonialism.

It had survived military coups.

It had survived a civil war.

It had survived repeated political crises.

It had experienced oil wealth and economic disappointment.

It had seen its citizens fight for democracy and pay heavy prices for political freedom.

Now the question was different.

Could democracy survive long enough to become more than an occasional interruption between military governments?

Could elected leaders build institutions strong enough to prevent another coup?

Could Nigerians begin to see democracy not merely as the right to vote, but as a system capable of delivering security, justice, opportunity and accountable government?

By: Fatima Adamu

From Independence to Military Rule

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